Here is the article. Interesting.
By DENNIS OVERBYE
Three Americans who helped describe the force that binds
together the atomic nucleus were named winners of the Nobel
Prize in Physics yesterday. They are Dr. David J. Gross of
the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics at the
University of California at Santa Barbara; Dr. Frank
Wilczek of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; and
Dr. H. David Politzer of the California Institute of
Technology.
In two papers published in 1973, one by Drd. Gross and
Wilczek and the other by Dr. Politzer, they explained why
quarks, the theoretical constituents of the neutrons and
protons that make up the nucleus, could never be seen apart
from one another. Their work paved the way for a theory
known by the fanciful-sounding name quantum chromodynamics,
part of a suite of theories known as the Standard Model
that explains all the forces of nature except gravity. It
also raised hopes that physicists might yet find a single
unified theory of nature. They will each get a third of the
$1.3 million prize.
The award had long been anticipated by the scientific
community. Dr. Lawrence M. Krauss, an astrophysicist at
Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, said it was
long overdue, adding, "How often do you get to explain one
of the four fundamental forces of nature?"
In a press conference at M.I.T., Dr. Wilczek said the award
was welcome recognition for the endeavor of trying to
understand nature. "It is one of the real gems of our
culture," he said, "that we can understand nature in this
way and that you find beautiful things."
The award harks back to what now seems like a golden age of
particle physics that lasted from the end of World War II
to the 1980's. In a spurt of feverish activity at particle
accelerators and at the blackboards of theorists, physics
arrived at an understanding of the three fundamental forces
in nature besides gravity: electromagnetism, which is
responsible for light and chemistry; the so-called weak
force, responsible for some kinds of radioactive decay; and
the strong force, which holds together atomic nuclei.
According to quantum mechanics, the paradoxical lingua
franca of the atomic world, the forces between particles
are transmitted in a kind of game of catch by little
bundles of energy. For electromagnetism, the force carriers
are bits of light known as photons. For the weak force,
they are the W and Z bosons, which are brothers, of a sort,
of the photon.
By the 1970's, the situation with regard to the strong
force was considerably murkier than for the other forces.
In 1964, the theorists Dr. Murray Gell-Mann of Caltech and
Dr. George Zweig of Harvard each independently suggested
that protons and neutrons, the constituents of atomic
nuclei, were not elementary but were themselves composites,
made up of smaller particles that Dr. Gell-Mann called
quarks.
But quarks were never seen in isolation, suggesting that
the force binding them together was extremely powerful.
Meanwhile, experiments at particle accelerators indicated
that quarks inside protons seemed to act as if there was no
force on them at all. How could that be?
"At first, it seemed like a contradiction," said Dr.
Wilczek.
Or as Dr. Robert L. Jaffe of M.I.T. put it: "It was just
viewed as absurd that nature was made of something that was
never seen. How could the quarks not get out? It was upside
down to everything we had seen before."
The 1973 papers, Dr. Jaffe said, "translated absurdity into
order," using the theory of quantum chromodynamics. In the
modern version of this theory, quarks come in six types -
fancifully named up, down, strange, charmed, top and bottom
- and three "colors," named red, green and blue. The colors
are like electrical charges that interact by exchanging
bundles of energy called gluons, just as electrical charges
attract or repel by exchanging photons.
In contrast to electromagnetism, however, the gluons
themselves have a color charge - thus the name
chromodynamics - and interact with one another. In a
breakthrough calculation, Dr. Gross, then an assistant
professor at Princeton, and Dr. Wilczek, his graduate
student, found that the force between two quarks would
increase with distance and turn off as they grew closer. It
would be as if the quarks were tied together by a rubber
band that pulled tauter and tauter as they separated, but
went slack when they came together, a notion known as
asymptotic freedom.
They soon learned that Dr. Politzer, then a graduate
student at Harvard, had done the same thing.
Dr. Gross, 63, was born in Washington. Dr. Politzer, 55,
and Dr. Wilczek, 53, were both born in New York City.
Noting that several Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work
on unifying the weak and electromagnetic forces, Dr. Gross
said that he was happy and proud that work on the strong
force was being recognized.
"In many ways, I regard it as the most beautiful part of
the Standard Model, the hardest to put together and the
most exciting," he said.
Dr. Politzer was described by Caltech officials as shy, and
he declined to be interviewed yesterday or to attend a news
conference. But, he is not completely unused to the
spotlight. Caltech said he played a physicist in the 1989
Paul Newman movie "Fat Man and Little Boy," about the
building of the atomic bomb.
By DENNIS OVERBYE
Three Americans who helped describe the force that binds
together the atomic nucleus were named winners of the Nobel
Prize in Physics yesterday. They are Dr. David J. Gross of
the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics at the
University of California at Santa Barbara; Dr. Frank
Wilczek of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; and
Dr. H. David Politzer of the California Institute of
Technology.
In two papers published in 1973, one by Drd. Gross and
Wilczek and the other by Dr. Politzer, they explained why
quarks, the theoretical constituents of the neutrons and
protons that make up the nucleus, could never be seen apart
from one another. Their work paved the way for a theory
known by the fanciful-sounding name quantum chromodynamics,
part of a suite of theories known as the Standard Model
that explains all the forces of nature except gravity. It
also raised hopes that physicists might yet find a single
unified theory of nature. They will each get a third of the
$1.3 million prize.
The award had long been anticipated by the scientific
community. Dr. Lawrence M. Krauss, an astrophysicist at
Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, said it was
long overdue, adding, "How often do you get to explain one
of the four fundamental forces of nature?"
In a press conference at M.I.T., Dr. Wilczek said the award
was welcome recognition for the endeavor of trying to
understand nature. "It is one of the real gems of our
culture," he said, "that we can understand nature in this
way and that you find beautiful things."
The award harks back to what now seems like a golden age of
particle physics that lasted from the end of World War II
to the 1980's. In a spurt of feverish activity at particle
accelerators and at the blackboards of theorists, physics
arrived at an understanding of the three fundamental forces
in nature besides gravity: electromagnetism, which is
responsible for light and chemistry; the so-called weak
force, responsible for some kinds of radioactive decay; and
the strong force, which holds together atomic nuclei.
According to quantum mechanics, the paradoxical lingua
franca of the atomic world, the forces between particles
are transmitted in a kind of game of catch by little
bundles of energy. For electromagnetism, the force carriers
are bits of light known as photons. For the weak force,
they are the W and Z bosons, which are brothers, of a sort,
of the photon.
By the 1970's, the situation with regard to the strong
force was considerably murkier than for the other forces.
In 1964, the theorists Dr. Murray Gell-Mann of Caltech and
Dr. George Zweig of Harvard each independently suggested
that protons and neutrons, the constituents of atomic
nuclei, were not elementary but were themselves composites,
made up of smaller particles that Dr. Gell-Mann called
quarks.
But quarks were never seen in isolation, suggesting that
the force binding them together was extremely powerful.
Meanwhile, experiments at particle accelerators indicated
that quarks inside protons seemed to act as if there was no
force on them at all. How could that be?
"At first, it seemed like a contradiction," said Dr.
Wilczek.
Or as Dr. Robert L. Jaffe of M.I.T. put it: "It was just
viewed as absurd that nature was made of something that was
never seen. How could the quarks not get out? It was upside
down to everything we had seen before."
The 1973 papers, Dr. Jaffe said, "translated absurdity into
order," using the theory of quantum chromodynamics. In the
modern version of this theory, quarks come in six types -
fancifully named up, down, strange, charmed, top and bottom
- and three "colors," named red, green and blue. The colors
are like electrical charges that interact by exchanging
bundles of energy called gluons, just as electrical charges
attract or repel by exchanging photons.
In contrast to electromagnetism, however, the gluons
themselves have a color charge - thus the name
chromodynamics - and interact with one another. In a
breakthrough calculation, Dr. Gross, then an assistant
professor at Princeton, and Dr. Wilczek, his graduate
student, found that the force between two quarks would
increase with distance and turn off as they grew closer. It
would be as if the quarks were tied together by a rubber
band that pulled tauter and tauter as they separated, but
went slack when they came together, a notion known as
asymptotic freedom.
They soon learned that Dr. Politzer, then a graduate
student at Harvard, had done the same thing.
Dr. Gross, 63, was born in Washington. Dr. Politzer, 55,
and Dr. Wilczek, 53, were both born in New York City.
Noting that several Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work
on unifying the weak and electromagnetic forces, Dr. Gross
said that he was happy and proud that work on the strong
force was being recognized.
"In many ways, I regard it as the most beautiful part of
the Standard Model, the hardest to put together and the
most exciting," he said.
Dr. Politzer was described by Caltech officials as shy, and
he declined to be interviewed yesterday or to attend a news
conference. But, he is not completely unused to the
spotlight. Caltech said he played a physicist in the 1989
Paul Newman movie "Fat Man and Little Boy," about the
building of the atomic bomb.
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